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| - In biblical times, a woman was legally regarded simply as property (valuable property that needed to be looked after), and the betrothal was effected simply by purchasing her from her father (or guardian). The girl’s consent is not explicitly required by any biblical law; neither however, is there explicit permission to ignore it. The bible, doubtless on the basis of ordinary human affection, on one occasion portrays a parent as giving their daughter some choice in the matter; but the arrangements about the marriage, and especially about the purchase price, were made with her father (or guardian).
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| abstract
| - In biblical times, a woman was legally regarded simply as property (valuable property that needed to be looked after), and the betrothal was effected simply by purchasing her from her father (or guardian). The girl’s consent is not explicitly required by any biblical law; neither however, is there explicit permission to ignore it. The bible, doubtless on the basis of ordinary human affection, on one occasion portrays a parent as giving their daughter some choice in the matter; but the arrangements about the marriage, and especially about the purchase price, were made with her father (or guardian). In the most popular modern forms of Judaism (Reform and Reconstructionist), the betrothal is now a more egalitarian arrangement. The price paid for the woman (who became me'orasa by the act) is known by the Hebrew term mohar. The bible gives very little indication of the usual range of value for a mohar. In the Deuteronomic Code, the only value given is that for a woman with whom the groom has already had sexual intercourse, namely a mohar of silver worth fifty shekels (a weight, rather than a specific coin). However, biblical narratives indicate that it could also take the form of personal service, as with the description of Jacob's service to Laban, or by prowess in war, as with the description of David's exchange of a hundred foreskins (each representing a slaughtered enemy) to obtain Michal in marriage. At a similar period in Greece, oxen could be used as the bride-price. In the Talmud, it is argued that even a perutah, the smallest coin used in Roman Palestine, was a sufficient mohar; among Orthodox Jews in the modern State of Israel, it is believed that the mohar must be worth at least this amount (or rather, the worth of the modern coin - the pruta - having the same name; the spelling is merely a slight variation). It gradually became customary in many areas for the mohar to be an object whose value is well known, and fairly constant: an unadorned gold ring - without gem or inscription; though in Eastern Europe, during the Middle Ages, it was traditional for a miniature image of a synagogue to be carved on them, together with the phrase good luck. In many places the ring was an heirloom - a child would use the ring of their parents - but in some locations a ring would be made specially for each bride; among the Cochin Jews, a goldsmith manufactures the ring on the morning of the wedding itself, the bride checking that it fits, accompanied by women singing local songs. It appears to have been customary in early biblical times for the bride to be given part of the mohar; the Book of Genesis denigrates Laban for spending it entirely on himself. Gradually, the mohar lost its original meaning of a purchase money, and the custom arose of giving it to the bride rather than the father. A similar change occurred among the early Arabs, and in the Qur'an, it is regarded as normal practice for the mohar to be given to the bride. In Jewish religious law, because the exchange of the mohar has significance as a legal transaction, two kosher witnesses must see the mohar being passed from the groom to the bride. For the same reason traditional Jews believe that the wedding ceremony may not take place on Shabbat or Jewish holidays with shabbat-like work restrictions. The Talmud states that a man should not marry without first seeing his bride.; this has led to a number of formal 'viewing' rituals. In the Ashkenazi community, it is customary for the bride to walk around the groom seven times. This is said to be symbolic of the bride's desire to protect her husband from harm..The bride's consent is required. In traditional Jewish weddings there is no verbal response on the part of the bride. Instead, if she accepts, she would take the mohar (if it is a ring, she might possibly place it on her finger), and then symbolically close her hand. Most forms of modern Judaism, however, including the Conservative and Reform denominations, view sexual inequality as somewhat distasteful, and therefore baulk at the idea of marriage being a purchase of a woman by a man; instead brides from these denominations typically respond to the offer by one of their own, handing a ring to the groom and quoting a suitable biblical passage (the Book of Canticles, a collection of love poetry, being particularly popular - for example, the phrase Ani l'dodi, l'dodi ani (I am for my beloved, and my beloved is for me))
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