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| - In 829, as the young Theophilos (reigned 829–842) ascended the Byzantine throne, the Byzantine–Arab Wars had gone on and off for almost two centuries. An ambitious man and a convinced iconoclast, Theophilos sought to bolster his regime and support his religious policies by military success against the Abbasid Caliphate, the Empire's major antagonist. Throughout the 830s, Theophilos launched a series of moderately successful campaigns against the Caliphate, allowing him to portray himself in the traditional Roman way as a victorious emperor. In 837, Theophilos himself led a major campaign to the region of the upper Euphrates, sacking the cities of Arsamosata and Sozopetra – which some sources claim as Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim (reigned 833–842) own birthplace – and forcing Melitene to pay
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| abstract
| - In 829, as the young Theophilos (reigned 829–842) ascended the Byzantine throne, the Byzantine–Arab Wars had gone on and off for almost two centuries. An ambitious man and a convinced iconoclast, Theophilos sought to bolster his regime and support his religious policies by military success against the Abbasid Caliphate, the Empire's major antagonist. Throughout the 830s, Theophilos launched a series of moderately successful campaigns against the Caliphate, allowing him to portray himself in the traditional Roman way as a victorious emperor. In 837, Theophilos himself led a major campaign to the region of the upper Euphrates, sacking the cities of Arsamosata and Sozopetra – which some sources claim as Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim (reigned 833–842) own birthplace – and forcing Melitene to pay tribute and deliver hostages in return for being spared. In response, al-Mu'tasim decided to launch a major punitive expedition against Byzantium, aiming to capture the two major Byzantine cities of central Anatolia, Ancyra and Amorion. The latter was probably the largest city in Anatolia at the time, as well as the birthplace of the reigning Amorian dynasty and consequently of particular symbolic importance; according to the chronicles, al-Mu'tasim's soldiers painted the word "Amorion" on their shields and banners. A vast army was gathered at Tarsus (80,000 men according to Treadgold), which was then divided into two main forces. The northern force, under the commander Afshin, would invade the Armeniac theme from the region of Melitene, joining up with the forces of the city's emir, Omar al-Aqta. The southern, main force, under the Caliph himself, would pass the Cilician Gates into Cappadocia and head to Ancyra. After the city was taken, the Arab armies would join and march to Amorion. Afshin's force included, according to Skylitzes, the entire Arab army of Armenia, and numbered 20,000 (Haldon) to 30,000 men (Treadgold), among whom were some 10,000 Turkish horse-archers. On the Byzantine side, Theophilos was early on aware of the Caliph's intentions, and set out from Constantinople in early June. His army included the men from the Anatolian and possibly also the European themes, the elite tagmata regiments, as well as a contingent of Persian and Kurdish Khurramites. Under their leader Nasr (converted to Christianity and baptized as Theophobos), these people had fled religious persecution in the Caliphate, deserted to the Empire in the previous years, and formed the so-called "Persian tourma". Camping at Dorylaion, the Emperor divided his forces, sending a strong corps to reinforce the garrison of Amorion, while he himself set out with the remainder (circa 25,000 according to Haldon and 40,000 according to Treadgold) to interpose himself between the Cilician Gates and Ancyra.
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