Prior to Secession, the South manufactured relatively few books, but imported them heavily from Northern cities such as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. In 1860, there were only four major book publishers in the South, although there were numerous small job printers. Of even greater concern was the fact that the South manufactured little of its own paper and ink. After Secession, these were no longer available from the North, and the South began to expand its own printing and manufacture of paper and ink. Shortages of these supplies, however, were chronic and often severe.